---
title: "凝聚态：从材料读到证据"
description: "32 篇双语文章，沿着测量理解电子器件、超导、超流与拓扑物态。六条阅读路径，配合八种相关仪器。"
canonical_url: "https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/"
language: "zh-CN"
page_type: "story"
alternate_languages:
  en: "https://sandboxphysics.com/stories/condensed-matter/"
last_modified: "2026-10-24"
---

[量子物理：读懂证据](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/quantum-evidence/)

32 篇文章 · 6 条路径 · 中英双语

# 凝聚态：从材料读到证据

32 篇双语文章，沿着测量理解电子器件、超导、超流与拓扑物态。六条阅读路径，配合八种相关仪器。

电流可以显出能隙，也可以透露磁排列，或读出传感器里搬运的电荷包。从想弄懂的现象读起，再沿装置追到测量，看看证据究竟支持什么。

动手控制实验

## 八种仪器，八个不同问题

每种仪器采用明确的教学模型与合成数据。沿可见过程追到曲线和读数，模型说明中保留相应假设。

1. ### [控制晶体管](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/labs/transistor-output-characteristics/)

   载流子注入与输出曲线

2. ### [穿过材料界面](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/labs/heterojunction-injection/)

   带阶与载流子注入

3. ### [点亮蓝光](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/labs/blue-led-efficiency/)

   复合与效率

4. ### [搬运电荷图像](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/labs/ccd-charge-transfer/)

   时钟转移与读出噪声

5. ### [转动自旋阀](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/labs/gmr-spin-valve/)

   相对磁化与电阻

6. ### [给超导环穿入磁通](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/labs/squid-flux-response/)

   磁通与双结干涉

7. ### [比较重复开关](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/labs/josephson-switching-statistics/)

   热激活与隧穿逃逸极限

8. ### [看磁通进入超导体](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/labs/superconductor-critical-fields/)

   转变附近的临界场

阅读路径 · C-R1

## 控制电流与光的材料

从载流子供给出发，追到实际电信号或光信号。

1. ### [热电子发射：热表面怎样给电流设上限](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/thermionic-emission/)

   Richardson 怎样把热金属放出的电子，与气体引起的电流分开？

2. ### [第一只晶体管：小输入怎样控制大电流](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/transistor-point-contact/)

   点接触实验证明了什么，是普通电阻做不到的？

3. ### [Esaki 隧道二极管：电压升高，电流为何反降](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/esaki-tunnel-diode/)

   重掺杂结的电流曲线为什么会出现下降的一段？

4. ### [异质结构：界面怎样变成器件的控制手段](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/semiconductor-heterostructures/)

   把两种不同半导体接在一起，器件多了什么自由度？

5. ### [集成电路：把一个电路做进同一块材料](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/integrated-circuit/)

   把元件集成起来，为什么是不同于发明晶体管的另一项突破？

6. ### [巨磁阻：磁化方向怎样改变电阻](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/giant-magnetoresistance/)

   交替的磁性薄层对齐后，为什么更容易导电？

7. ### [CCD 成像：先搬运电荷，再读出信号](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/ccd-charge-transfer/)

   时钟驱动的电荷阱，怎样把曝光变成电图像？

8. ### [石墨烯：薄片怎样成为可测的电子系统](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/graphene-field-effect/)

   2004 年的薄碳片实验，除了剥得薄，还证明了什么？

9. ### [蓝 LED：宽带隙只是起点](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/blue-led/)

   高效蓝光为何还需要晶体生长和空穴注入的突破？

阅读路径 · C-R2

## 低温液体与超导有序

低温揭示了什么，理论怎样跟进，又怎样接受独立测量检验。

1. ### [液氦：怎样打开新的低温范围](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/liquid-helium-onnes/)

   把氦液化，为什么既是技术突破，也是新的科学工具？

2. ### [Landau 的液氦：先描述整个液体的激发](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/landau-superfluid-helium/)

   集体激发怎样把热、声和超流运动连起来？

3. ### [Kapitsa 的液氦流动：怎样测黏性很重要](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/kapitsa-helium-flow/)

   为什么 lambda 转变以下的液氦，不能只用一种普通黏度来理解？

4. ### [BCS 理论：一个配对态要同时解释几类实验](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/bcs-pairing-evidence/)

   为什么激发能隙比又一套零电阻解释更有说服力？

5. ### [Giaever 的结：电流怎样显出超导能隙](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/giaever-gap-spectroscopy/)

   薄绝缘层怎样把电流测量变成能谱测量？

6. ### [Josephson 的预言：相位能驱动零电压电流](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/josephson-phase-current/)

   穿过绝缘势垒的超电流，新在哪里？

7. ### [铜氧化物超导：陶瓷怎样改变了温度尺度](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/cuprate-superconductivity/)

   什么证据让异常降阻变成了一个新的超导材料家族？

8. ### [氦三：一个压力异常怎样改变了解释](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/helium-three-superfluid/)

   压力与核磁共振怎样揭示液态氦三的转变？

9. ### [Ginzburg—Landau 理论：超导有序怎样在空间变化](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/ginzburg-landau-order/)

   尚不知道微观配对时，唯象场怎样预言界面与磁响应？

10. ### [Abrikosov 涡旋：磁通进入，超导却还存在](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/abrikosov-vortex-lattice/)

    超导体里有磁通，为什么磁通芯之间还能超导？

11. ### [Leggett 的氦三：共振怎样辨认配对有序](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/leggett-helium-three/)

    很小的自旋相关相互作用，为什么能揭示配对液体的结构？

阅读路径 · C-R3

## 稀薄气体凝聚的证据

从制备和释放图像读起，再区分占据、相干与超流响应。

1. ### [稀薄气体 BEC：膨胀云团带来了什么证据](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/bec-time-of-flight/)

   制备过程与飞行时间图，怎样共同建立 Bose—Einstein 凝聚的证据？

阅读路径 · C-R4

## 集体电路变量怎样显出量子性质

比较开关统计与离散能级的微波证据。

1. ### [宏观量子电路：逃逸与共振各说明了什么](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/macroscopic-quantum-circuit/)

   有偏置的 Josephson 电路，怎样揭示隧穿和离散能级？

阅读路径 · C-R5

## 磁性、无序与拓扑响应

分清磁有序、相干无序和多电子关联分别做了什么。

1. ### [Néel 的磁有序：总磁矩为零，也可能排列整齐](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/neel-magnetic-order/)

   原子磁矩已经有序，材料为何仍不像普通铁磁体？

2. ### [Anderson 局域化：无序怎样阻止扩散](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/anderson-localization/)

   晶格仍有连通路径，量子波为什么还会局域？

3. ### [Mott 的绝缘态：数一数能带还不够](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/mott-metal-insulator/)

   独立电子图景看起来应当是金属，电子为什么仍不导电？

4. ### [Van Vleck 磁化率：未被占据的能态也会影响磁响应](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/van-vleck-susceptibility/)

   量子态的虚跃迁，怎样影响磁化？

5. ### [整数量子 Hall 效应：平台怎样成为电阻基准](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/integer-quantum-hall/)

   Hall 电阻在一段范围内保持平台，为什么比碰巧过一个数值更有力？

6. ### [分数量子 Hall 效应：平台需要关联液体来解释](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/fractional-quantum-hall/)

   最低 Landau 能级只填一部分时，什么超出了整数 Hall 图景？

7. ### [涡旋解束缚：二维流体怎样越过普通有序的限制](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/kt-vortex-unbinding/)

   二维系统里，涡旋对怎样驱动相变？

8. ### [Haldane 自旋链：整数与半整数为何走向不同](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/haldane-integer-spin/)

   改变自旋量子数，为什么会改变反铁磁链的低能行为？

9. ### [Thouless 与 Hall 拓扑：一个整数怎样组织响应](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/thouless-hall-topology/)

   已占据量子态的几何，怎样解释稳健的整数 Hall 电导？

阅读路径 · C-R6

## 材料选择怎样改善测量

从合金实测热膨胀，追到精密仪器。

1. ### [Invar：温度改变时，长度怎样更稳定](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/invar-metrology/)

   一种特殊镍钢合金，怎样改善精密测量？

沿着时间读联系

## 实验、理论与后来的奖项

前一个日期标出文中讨论的工作节点，后一个日期标出相应诺奖。有的是实验，有的是理论；具体先后与来源见文章。

展开 32 个节点的证据时间线

1. 1896

   [Invar：温度改变时，长度怎样更稳定](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/invar-metrology/)

   诺奖：1920

2. 1901

   [热电子发射：热表面怎样给电流设上限](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/thermionic-emission/)

   诺奖：1928

3. 1908

   [液氦：怎样打开新的低温范围](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/liquid-helium-onnes/)

   诺奖：1913

4. 1932

   [Van Vleck 磁化率：未被占据的能态也会影响磁响应](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/van-vleck-susceptibility/)

   诺奖：1977

5. 1937

   [Mott 的绝缘态：数一数能带还不够](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/mott-metal-insulator/)

   诺奖：1977

6. 1938

   [Kapitsa 的液氦流动：怎样测黏性很重要](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/kapitsa-helium-flow/)

   诺奖：1978

7. 1941

   [Landau 的液氦：先描述整个液体的激发](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/landau-superfluid-helium/)

   诺奖：1962

8. 1947

   [第一只晶体管：小输入怎样控制大电流](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/transistor-point-contact/)

   诺奖：1956

9. 1948

   [Néel 的磁有序：总磁矩为零，也可能排列整齐](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/neel-magnetic-order/)

   诺奖：1970

10. 1950

    [Ginzburg—Landau 理论：超导有序怎样在空间变化](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/ginzburg-landau-order/)

    诺奖：2003

11. 1957

    [Abrikosov 涡旋：磁通进入，超导却还存在](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/abrikosov-vortex-lattice/)

    诺奖：2003

12. 1957

    [BCS 理论：一个配对态要同时解释几类实验](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/bcs-pairing-evidence/)

    诺奖：1972

13. 1957

    [Esaki 隧道二极管：电压升高，电流为何反降](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/esaki-tunnel-diode/)

    诺奖：1973

14. 1958

    [Anderson 局域化：无序怎样阻止扩散](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/anderson-localization/)

    诺奖：1977

15. 1958

    [集成电路：把一个电路做进同一块材料](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/integrated-circuit/)

    诺奖：2000

16. 1960

    [Giaever 的结：电流怎样显出超导能隙](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/giaever-gap-spectroscopy/)

    诺奖：1973

17. 1962

    [Josephson 的预言：相位能驱动零电压电流](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/josephson-phase-current/)

    诺奖：1973

18. 1963

    [异质结构：界面怎样变成器件的控制手段](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/semiconductor-heterostructures/)

    诺奖：2000

19. 1969

    [CCD 成像：先搬运电荷，再读出信号](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/ccd-charge-transfer/)

    诺奖：2009

20. 1972

    [氦三：一个压力异常怎样改变了解释](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/helium-three-superfluid/)

    诺奖：1996

21. 1973

    [涡旋解束缚：二维流体怎样越过普通有序的限制](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/kt-vortex-unbinding/)

    诺奖：2016

22. 1973

    [Leggett 的氦三：共振怎样辨认配对有序](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/leggett-helium-three/)

    诺奖：2003

23. 1980

    [整数量子 Hall 效应：平台怎样成为电阻基准](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/integer-quantum-hall/)

    诺奖：1985

24. 1982

    [分数量子 Hall 效应：平台需要关联液体来解释](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/fractional-quantum-hall/)

    诺奖：1998

25. 1982

    [Thouless 与 Hall 拓扑：一个整数怎样组织响应](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/thouless-hall-topology/)

    诺奖：2016

26. 1983

    [Haldane 自旋链：整数与半整数为何走向不同](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/haldane-integer-spin/)

    诺奖：2016

27. 1985

    [宏观量子电路：逃逸与共振各说明了什么](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/macroscopic-quantum-circuit/)

    诺奖：2025

28. 1986

    [铜氧化物超导：陶瓷怎样改变了温度尺度](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/cuprate-superconductivity/)

    诺奖：1987

29. 1988

    [巨磁阻：磁化方向怎样改变电阻](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/giant-magnetoresistance/)

    诺奖：2007

30. 1992

    [蓝 LED：宽带隙只是起点](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/blue-led/)

    诺奖：2014

31. 1995

    [稀薄气体 BEC：膨胀云团带来了什么证据](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/bec-time-of-flight/)

    诺奖：2001

32. 2004

    [石墨烯：薄片怎样成为可测的电子系统](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/graphene-field-effect/)

    诺奖：2010

查找全部 25 个诺奖贡献分项

### [1913-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1913/summary/)

- [液氦：怎样打开新的低温范围](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/liquid-helium-onnes/)

### [1920-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1920/summary/)

- [Invar：温度改变时，长度怎样更稳定](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/invar-metrology/)

### [1928-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1928/summary/)

- [热电子发射：热表面怎样给电流设上限](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/thermionic-emission/)

### [1956-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1956/summary/)

- [第一只晶体管：小输入怎样控制大电流](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/transistor-point-contact/)

### [1962-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1962/summary/)

- [Landau 的液氦：先描述整个液体的激发](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/landau-superfluid-helium/)

### [1970-2](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1970/summary/)

- [Néel 的磁有序：总磁矩为零，也可能排列整齐](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/neel-magnetic-order/)

### [1972-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1972/summary/)

- [BCS 理论：一个配对态要同时解释几类实验](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/bcs-pairing-evidence/)

### [1973-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1973/summary/)

- [Esaki 隧道二极管：电压升高，电流为何反降](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/esaki-tunnel-diode/)
- [Giaever 的结：电流怎样显出超导能隙](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/giaever-gap-spectroscopy/)

### [1973-2](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1973/summary/)

- [Josephson 的预言：相位能驱动零电压电流](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/josephson-phase-current/)

### [1977-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1977/summary/)

- [Anderson 局域化：无序怎样阻止扩散](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/anderson-localization/)
- [Mott 的绝缘态：数一数能带还不够](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/mott-metal-insulator/)
- [Van Vleck 磁化率：未被占据的能态也会影响磁响应](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/van-vleck-susceptibility/)

### [1978-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1978/summary/)

- [Kapitsa 的液氦流动：怎样测黏性很重要](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/kapitsa-helium-flow/)

### [1985-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1985/summary/)

- [整数量子 Hall 效应：平台怎样成为电阻基准](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/integer-quantum-hall/)

### [1987-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1987/summary/)

- [铜氧化物超导：陶瓷怎样改变了温度尺度](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/cuprate-superconductivity/)

### [1996-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1996/summary/)

- [氦三：一个压力异常怎样改变了解释](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/helium-three-superfluid/)

### [1998-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1998/summary/)

- [分数量子 Hall 效应：平台需要关联液体来解释](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/fractional-quantum-hall/)

### [2000-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2000/summary/)

- [异质结构：界面怎样变成器件的控制手段](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/semiconductor-heterostructures/)

### [2000-2](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2000/summary/)

- [集成电路：把一个电路做进同一块材料](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/integrated-circuit/)

### [2001-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2001/summary/)

- [稀薄气体 BEC：膨胀云团带来了什么证据](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/bec-time-of-flight/)

### [2003-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2003/summary/)

- [Ginzburg—Landau 理论：超导有序怎样在空间变化](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/ginzburg-landau-order/)
- [Abrikosov 涡旋：磁通进入，超导却还存在](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/abrikosov-vortex-lattice/)
- [Leggett 的氦三：共振怎样辨认配对有序](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/leggett-helium-three/)

### [2007-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2007/summary/)

- [巨磁阻：磁化方向怎样改变电阻](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/giant-magnetoresistance/)

### [2009-2](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2009/summary/)

- [CCD 成像：先搬运电荷，再读出信号](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/ccd-charge-transfer/)

### [2010-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2010/summary/)

- [石墨烯：薄片怎样成为可测的电子系统](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/graphene-field-effect/)

### [2014-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2014/summary/)

- [蓝 LED：宽带隙只是起点](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/blue-led/)

### [2016-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2016/summary/)

- [涡旋解束缚：二维流体怎样越过普通有序的限制](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/kt-vortex-unbinding/)
- [Haldane 自旋链：整数与半整数为何走向不同](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/haldane-integer-spin/)
- [Thouless 与 Hall 拓扑：一个整数怎样组织响应](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/thouless-hall-topology/)

### [2025-1](https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2025/summary/)

- [宏观量子电路：逃逸与共振各说明了什么](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/condensed-matter/macroscopic-quantum-circuit/)

## 接着读另一类证据

[量子基础与原子操控](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/quantum-evidence/) [探针、光与测量](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/probe-evidence/) [中微子与探测器](https://sandboxphysics.com/zh/stories/neutrinos/)